Overview of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is located in Central Africa and is notably the largest country by geography in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The DRC also has a dense history, unfortunately largely filled with events that served to cripple rather than benefit the country. These events throughout the country’s history are a tapestry woven with threads of colonialism, the fight for independence, political upheaval, and the exploitation of its abundant natural resources. The DRC is celebrated for its wealth in minerals, including precious gems like diamonds, copper, and cobalt. These resources have held the promise of economic prosperity while, unfortunately, contributing to the long-standing conflicts and instability in the region.
Historical Context of U.S. Involvement in the Region
The U.S. involvement in the DRC goes back to the colonial era (19th & 20th centuries), driven largely by American interests in the region’s copious natural resources, such as rubber and the minerals mentioned above (diamonds, copper, and cobalt). During the 1960s the U.S. became an ally to the DRC and supported the nation’s attempt to gain independence as it was attempting to pivot from its previous Belgian colonialism. Due to the global climate during this time, there were significant complications to address, such as how to contain the spread of communism while also utilizing U.S. foreign policy to align the DRC with its ideology (democracy). These policies often meant backing leaders and groups that served U.S. interests, albeit occasionally unintentionally adding to the nation’s political instability and internal strife. The U.S. remained a notable player in shaping the course of events in the DRC, an influence whose lasting impacts persist in the nation’s struggle for stability.
Colonization of the Congo by Belgium and King Leopold II
King Leopold II shared the future ambitions of the U.S., which was to capitalize on the abundant natural resources spread throughout the Congo. The focus of the former King of Belgium during the 19th century was rubber and ivory, which he successfully exploited for years to follow. King Leopold II managed to gain control of what would then be known as the Congo Free State through the disguise of humanitarian and philanthropic missions. He portrayed his ambitions as a noble civilizing mission, emphasizing the end of the Arab slave trade, Christianity, and Western civilization. This façade allowed him to secure international recognition and maintain the Congo as a privately owned venture, the International Congo Association. This “nation-state” which was privately owned by King Leopold II, ruled under absolute monarchy and lasted from the years 1885 to 1908. During his reign, he oversaw brutal and exploitative practices that resulted in immense suffering for the Congolese people. Some examples were forced labor, violence, and widespread human rights abuses, which now characterize the regime. More specifically, native populations were coerced into working on rubber plantations and collecting ivory, often under conditions of extreme cruelty. These practices led to a staggering loss of life and a population decline in the Congo, it is estimated that roughly 10 million Congolese died between 1880 and 1920, making up for almost 50% of the Congolese population. International outrage and growing pressure eventually forced Leopold to relinquish control of the Congo Free State to the Belgian government in 1908, which turned it into a Belgian colony. However, the legacy of exploitation and brutality continued for many years, affecting the social, economic, and political development of the region.
U.S. Interest in the Region’s Resources during this Period
Similar to King Leopold II, and Belgium, the U.S. along with additional Western nations such as France, Britain, Portugal, Germany, and Italy became interested in the resources the Congo had to offer. It is worth noting that Ivory and rubber had immense value in the global markets during the late 1800s and early 1900s, which specifically attracted industrialized countries. While the U.S. had involvement in the region’s economic activities, they were not as extensive as that of some European powers. Nonetheless, there was involvement, and American companies were involved in trade and commerce related to those resources. However, it is also important to note that while some Americans were engaged in trade with the Congo, some individuals and organizations criticized the brutal practices of Leopold II’s regime. One example of these organizations was the American Congo Reform Association, which sought to bring attention to the human rights abuses in the Congo and advocated for reforms. Their efforts contributed to international pressure that ultimately led to the transfer of the Congo Free State from Leopold’s control to the Belgian administration in 1908.
DRC’s Struggle for Independence in the 1960s
The 1960s were a transformative period for the DRC, as in 1960 the country would finally gain its independence after almost a century-long Belgium colonization. This emancipation was largely a result of continued international pressure on the Belgian government, which was urged to decolonize its African possessions. This long-awaited independence would lead to the country’s first democratic elections and in turn a charismatic and widely popular leader, Patrice Lumumba, would become the first Prime Minister of the now-independent nation. However, as those familiar with the current state of the DRC know, this moment of progress would not last long. The Belgian government pulled out effectively overnight, leaving the Congo, a country that at the time had only 16 college graduates out of the 20 million person population, as well as only three Congolese with experience serving in government. It is safe to say that this would be a fundamental part of the instability plaguing the country, leading to vast power struggles.
The United States-Lumumba Relationship
Due to growing concerns in Washington surrounding where Patrice Lumumba’s allegiances lay, what was first a partnership, quickly transitioned away from one. While Lumumba sought assistance from both Western and Eastern bloc nations, the U.S. grew concerned about his apparent tilt toward the Soviet Union. The U.S. feared that the Congo might fall under communist influence, and this in turn played a large role in influencing American policy decisions. Not even a full year into Patrice Lumumba’s position as Prime Minister, the U.S. and other Western nations withdrew their support for Lumumba, leading to his political isolation. On December 1, 1960, Lumumba was overthrown from his position and placed under house arrest, leading to Lumumba’s capture by Congolese soldiers loyal to Joseph Mobutu. This would lead to Lumumba being transported to Katanga Province, which was controlled by secessionist forces led by Moise Tshombe and supported by Belgian authorities. It is rumored that the CIA also played a large role in the removal and assassination of Patrice Lumumba. In January 1961, as a result of a coup orchestrated by the U.S. and the West, Patrice Lumumba was tortured and later assassinated via a firing squad. The removal of Lumumba would lead to power struggles, which persisted until an additional coup in 1965, leading to the emergence of Joseph Mobutu.
The United States-Mobutu Relationship
Within days of the 1961 coup unfolding, the U.S. had already set its sights on the next leader for the Congo, Joseph Mobutu. This goal would not come to fruition for several years, and in 1965, a bloodless military coup would unfold, leaving Mobutu in control of the DRC. After Mobutu’s rise to power, the multi-party system was abolished, resulting in the establishment of a one-party state. In turn, the one-party state would lead to Mobutu remaining in his position for three decades. Throughout those thirty years, Mobutu, like those who came before him, exploited the country’s vast mineral resources which some say are valued at almost $24 trillion. Despite the unethical behavior persistent in Mobutu’s autocratic rule, the U.S. wouldn’t withdraw its support until the 1990’s. This alliance survived those years due to Mobutu’s commitment to remaining anti-communist, but more importantly, was Mobutu’s commitment to protecting American interests, primarily access to rare minerals.
Change in U.S. Policy with the End of the Cold War
The decision for the U.S. to employ policy reform was highly contingent on the end of the Cold War, which would come to a close at the end of 1991. This policy reform would lead to the U.S. shedding its support for Mobutu, as during this time the U.S. was seeking to cut ties with any autocratic regimes. Another notable regime was that of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, which lost U.S. support in the 1990’s leading to the Gulf War. While U.S. support for Mobutu was dwindling, the DRC as a whole was not ignored, and instead, the U.S. exercised support through political reform and the protection of human rights. These changes were the result of the U.S. altering its foreign policy away from anti-communism, and in turn started the process of shifting support away from Mobutu’s former autocratic regime, in turn placing its focus on strengthening democracy and limiting the human rights abuses throughout the DRC. Political reform was represented through the offering of technical assistance and resources with the means of facilitating democratic transitions, elections, and the establishment of democratic institutions in the country. The U.S. also encouraged the DRC to embrace transparency as well as the rule of law, which are seen as building blocks for the construction of a functioning democracy and reducing corruption.
U.S. Support for Kabila’s Rebellion and His Rise to Power
While the U.S. did not directly support Laurent-Désiré Kabila’s rise to power, there is documented indirect support. The U.S. provided diplomatic and political support to neighboring countries, such as Rwanda and Uganda, who were backing Kabila’s rebellion against Mobutu’s autocracy. The diplomatic efforts on behalf of the U.S. were largely in an attempt to coordinate and encourage the regional actors within Rwanda and Uganda to remove Mobutu from power. The notion that the U.S. indirectly supported Kabila’s rebellion stems from the lack of military aid, which rather than being seen in the likes of weapons, was executed through training, intelligence sharing, and other forms of logistical support. The U.S. also supported Kabila’s rebellion through the act of leveraging other Western countries and international organizations to take a stance against Mobutu’s regime, primarily through political and financial means stemming from the robust diplomatic ties in the possession of the United States. This rebellion would lead to the First Congo War, which lasted one year, concluding with Laurent-Désiré Kabila becoming the President of the DRC and overthrowing Mobutu. However, it should be noted that the 1994 Rwandan Genocide also played an important role in the First Congo War, as the influx of Hutu extremists from Rwanda contributed to a large amount of armed and organized Hutu militants residing inside the DRC. Mobutu would end up dying from prostate cancer three months after being dethroned.
While the Rwandan Genocide is a crucial part of history when seeking to understand the deeper history of everlasting conflict in Central Africa, the author is attempting to focus on the U.S. involvement and encourages those interested in this specifically to read more here.
U.S. Indirect Involvement During the Conflict
Kabila’s Presidency continued to be plagued by the same issues the DRC struggled with for decades, which would lead to one of the deadliest conflicts in history, the Second Congo War, or the Great War of Africa. At the center of these issues were tensions tied to ethnic and rebel groups, some of which were backed by neighboring countries (Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi) seeking to make financial gain from the DRC’s natural resources. In 1998, the mounting tension from external groups, as well as internally within Kabila’s government would meet its breaking point, leading to an extremely deadly conflict to unfold. Laurent-Désiré Kabila would face a similar fate to that of Patrice Lumumba, as in January of 2001 Kabila was shot and killed by a bodyguard in his palace. The bodyguard in question was immediately shot and killed, and two dozen more affiliated with the coup led by Kabila’s closest personal aid, Colonel Eddy Kapend, were sentenced to death. However, these individuals were all pardoned by President Felix Tshisekedi in early 2021. The U.S., based on current information, did not directly become involved during the Second Congo War, and instead withheld military aid, but provided humanitarian aid and diplomatic support to African countries, the DRC included. Additionally, the U.S. attempted to promote peace efforts, such as cease-fires and peace accords, while also engaging the United Nations in an attempt to address the conflict. Furthermore, which is interesting when considering the dynamics of the Israel-Palestine conflict, was the U.S. working to discourage external interference and promote the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the DRC. The U.S. also hypocritically expressed concerns about the exploitation of the DRC’s resources and sought to address the issue through diplomatic means, advocating for transparency in resource management. The Second Congo War lasted roughly five years, yet the conflict resulted in roughly 6 million deaths, making it the deadliest conflict since World War II. The consequences of this conflict are still tangible and play a core role in the regional instability today.
Influence on DRC’s Stability
In summary, U.S. involvement in the DRC has evolved, from early Cold War-era support for autocratic leaders to a more democratic and human rights-oriented approach. However, the legacy is marked by both positive efforts to promote stability and democracy and, at times, indirect contributions to ongoing conflicts and humanitarian crises. The involvement on behalf of the U.S. serves as a stark reminder of the capabilities our country is willing to take for our own bottom line, as several individuals faced dire consequences through assassinations and coups largely orchestrated by the United States. Additionally, Belgium played a far more profound role in creating instability throughout the DRC, most notably through their exploitation resulting in millions dead as well as eventually abandoning the country completely. The DRC continues to face significant political, economic, and security challenges as it works to overcome its complex history and build a more stable and prosperous future.
[Document: https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP78-02646R000300060001-8.pdf]